10

ENERGY FORCES
 

(Author’s Note: This chapter on energy forces presents an overview of the major developments that have taken place in the field of theoretical physics during the last century. It is the surrealistic disclosures in this field of new physics - more than any other branch of science - that have been instrumental in influencing several of the crucial ideas in my work.)

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In the preceding chapters, a number of supporting theoretical concepts were examined and linked together into one central hypothesis. In this hypothesis, all material objects are seen to possess occult intrinsic intelligence. This occult intelligence takes on an overt form when projected in the material state as chemistry. It was suggested that molecular linkages in chemistry provide the circuitry for the creation of material code patterns... codes that represent the translation of the language of energy forces into the language of matter. According to this hypothesis, all intelligent behaviour or manifestations exhibited by material forms on earth are identified by the human senses as dynamic shapes or patterns generated by chemical reactions.

In chemistry, the underlying force that links atoms and molecules together is electromagnetic energy. In the theoretical concept that has been submitted, electromagnetic energy is seen as an intelligent force; its intrinsic intelligence is manifested and projected as dynamic wave patterns of energy. It is presented as being ‘alive’, possessing the property of consciousness, in as much as the human brain in the living state possesses consciousness.

This presumptive identification of intelligence within electromagnetic energy forces opens the door to a whole new perspective in our search for the ultimate origin of intelligence. If the theory is correct, and since electromagnetic forces represent only one of four forms of energy forces in the universe (see later in this chapter), then a collateral assumption would be... intrinsic intelligence should exist in all other forms of energy forces as well. Hence, to be able to really appreciate what I am trying to put across in ‘Intelligent Energy -- A God Hypothesis’, it would be helpful to know something about energy forces... what they are, and how they are interrelated. For this, it is necessary to review those sections in physics relating to energy and its transitions. Several very good books on theoretical physics have been written for the lay person that would serve this purpose well... ‘The Tao of Physics’ - Fritjof Capra; ‘Cosmic Code’ - Heinz Pagel; ‘A Brief History of Time’ - Stephen Hawking... to name a few
 

WEIRDNESS IN PHYSICAL REALITY 

Exciting developments have taken place in the field of theoretical physics since the turn of the 20th century. New scientific facts have emerged, overturning old popular concepts (popular because they appeal to the common sense), making mockery of the way we normally view the world and the universe around us. Among these were discoveries revealing a bizarre and mind-boggling reality that exists within the cosmic universe and the subatomic realm.
 

MATTER AND ENERGY FORCES

Everything in this universe is made up of particulate matter and energy forces incorporated within a time framework. (For simplicity’s sake, the term ‘matter’ referred to here includes ‘anti-matter’.) A unit of matter is a point-particle that occupies a localised region in space. Energy forces on the other hand are represented as waves spread out over an ill-defined area. Energy waves have no mass, but have measurable properties such as wavelength, amplitude, frequency and velocity. In physics, four primary energy forces have been identified. Under Field Theory (to be described later), these four universal forces interact with one another to present the universe as we see it today. The four energy forces are, in ascending order of strengths: (1) Gravity (2) The Weak Nuclear Force (3) The Electromagnetic Force (4) The Strong Nuclear Force.
 

THE ATOM

In chemistry, the basic unit of any element is the atom. The atom has a nuclear core containing almost all of the atomic mass. This nuclear core is made up of subatomic nuclear particles (hadrons) bound together by very strong nuclear forces. The hadrons of the nuclear mass consist mainly of protons (positive charge) and neutrons (neutral charge). These move around one another at very great speeds, about 40,000 miles per second. Bound to the nuclear core by electromagnetic forces are clouds of orbiting negatively charged electrons making up only a minute fraction of the total atomic mass. Electrons move around the atomic nucleus at speeds of about 600 miles per second. The nuclear mass is very dense, and occupies a space 100,000 times less than that of the entire atom. In between the dense nucleus and its orbiting electrons are vast areas of ‘empty’ space permeated by electromagnetic forces.
 

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE

In the cosmic universe, electromagnetic forces comprise those forces of the electromagnetic spectrum ranging from radio waves to gamma rays. (Visible light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum). Inside the atom, electromagnetic forces interact between charged particles, viz., between positively charged protons of the atomic nucleus and the negatively charged electrons orbiting around it. Electromagnetic forces are also responsible for molecular bondage between atoms and molecules.
 

WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY

In 1802, Thomas Young discovered the wave nature of light. He showed that when light is projected through two adjacent slits, an interference pattern is displayed on a screen placed behind the slits, a characteristic found only in waves. In 1905, Einstein demonstrated the corpuscular nature of light through its photoelectric effect, viz., the displacement of electrons from a smooth metal surface by a beam of light, and suggested that light is made up of particles (photons). Since then, wave-particle duality has also been demonstrated in the electron and other subatomic particles.

Now, there seems to be a contradiction here. How is it possible for a particle, occupying a localised region in space, to be at the same time a wave spread over an undefined area? Despite several theories that have been put forward in attempts to reconcile these two opposing depictions of physical reality, the enigma of wave-particle duality still remains on the whole unresolved.
 

THE CONSTANT SPEED OF LIGHT

One peculiar property that electromagnetic waves (including light) have in common is, they all travel at a constant velocity of about 186,000 miles per second through a vacuum (the maximum velocity attainable by any entity in this universe). Electromagnetic waves travelling through a vacuum cannot be speeded up or slowed down. Furthermore, this velocity of 186,000 m.p.s. remains constant regardless of whether the area of measurement is stationary or in motion. (Whether you measure the velocity of a beam of light while moving towards it or away from it, the reading will be the same, viz. 186,000 m.p.s.)  This peculiar property of light and all electromagnetic waves defies explanation by classical laws of physics. Even when Albert Einstein proposed his Special Theory of Relativity in 1905, he did not try to offer an explanation for this strange property of light, but instead treated it as a postulate to be accepted without question.
 

EINSTEIN’S SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY 

Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity was built upon two postulates:

• The constant speed of light is to be accepted as an indisputable fact.

• An object cannot be described as being in absolute motion or rest. It can only be described as being in motion or at rest relative to another object.

When the Special Theory of Relativity is applied to the study of moving objects, weird effects are seen: an external observer fixing his gaze upon a moving object will note that..

1.   The object under observation measures progressively shorter in its direction of motion as the speed increases until, at the speed of light, its measurement reads as zero.

2.   The mass of the object increases as its speed increases until, at the speed of light, its mass becomes infinite.

3.   Clocks within the moving object slow down as its speed increases until, at the speed of light, time comes to a standstill.

However, all these effects are relative; an observer stationed separately from the moving object notices these effects, but not an observer travelling along with the moving object. To this travelling observer, his time clock and measuring rods appear unchanged.

In the Special Theory of Relativity, space and time are not separate co-ordinates as viewed under the classical Newtonian concept, but are intimately linked together as a 4-dimensional space-time continuum. This continuum is not uniform throughout the universe. The Special Theory provides for psychedelic effects such as space/time contraction and space/time dilatation affecting masses travelling at different velocities through space.

Later in 1905, Einstein published another paper based on his Special Theory.  In this paper, he showed mathematically that energy can be expressed as mass through the now-famous equation, E=MC², where E=energy, M=Mass and C² =square of the velocity of light. This equation revolutionises our entire concept of the structure of matter. It tells us that mass and energy are one and the same; that they are equivalent to each other; that in reality, mass is a ‘compactified’ form of energy.
 

EINSTEIN’S GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY 

The Special Theory of Relativity describes the behaviour of objects in uniform motion. In 1915, Einstein published his General Theory of Relativity in which he extended the concepts of his Special Theory to describe the behaviour of objects in non-uniform motion. The General Theory is also built around two postulates:

• The effect of gravity is equivalent to the effect of uniform acceleration.

• The presence of a mass in space creates a distortion of the 4-dimensional space-time continuum around it, resulting in a 3-dimensional curvature of space around the mass. (For parallel comparison, a 3-dimensional globe has a 2-dimensional surface-area curvature).

Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity reveals more weird facts of reality. It tells us that the universal space-time continuum is not uniform throughout the universe. Space-time is subjected to 3-dimensional curvature and distortion in the vicinity around a mass.

Scientists carrying out tests have since then verified several main aspects of the General Theory. The Theory has predicted accurately the degree of bending of starlight from behind a solar eclipse. It has also accounted for the hitherto unexplained eccentricity of the planet Mercury’s orbit around the sun. The Theory also predicts that time slows down in a gravitational field, an effect that has also been verified. The Theory also predicts the existence of ‘black holes’... regions in space where gravity is so strong that everything within its vicinity is drawn into it, and once in nothing, not even light, can escape from it.

Unseen forces; wave-particle duality; equivalence of mass and energy; mass-increase to infinite size; shrinking rulers travelling at near the speed of light; 4-dimensional space-time continuum; time dilatation and contraction; 3-dimensional space curvature and distortion; black holes in space: These are some of the psychedelic concepts that have become established as part of a weird reality uncovered by developments in Physics at the turn of the last century. More surprises were in store when scientists began probing into the subatomic realm and beyond.
 

MYSTERY OF THE HYDROGEN SPECTRAL LINES

Gases become fluorescent when subjected to the passage of an electric current through these.  The light emissions from fluorescent gases produce characteristic spectral lines for each different gas. Niels Bohr, a Danish Physicist, studying this phenomenon in hydrogen gas, worked out an atomic theory that accounted for its spectral lines. Bohr showed how each spectral line could be accounted for if an electron jumped from a higher orbit to a lower one, giving up quantity-packages of energy during this process. Each spectral line represents one orbital jump of the electron. Bohr’s theory states that an electron in its ground state, i.e. at its lowest energy level, will occupy a certain minimum orbit around the atomic nucleus. As more energy is supplied to the atom, e.g. an electric current, the electron becomes energized and proceeds to jump from orbit to orbit further away from the nucleus. When the external energy supply is cut, the electron proceeds to jump inwards to lower orbits, radiating excess energy at each jump, until the ground state is once again reached. Noting that the hydrogen spectral lines were always specific in number and pattern, Bohr deduced that electrons must be giving up specific quantities of energy during each jump from a higher to a lower orbit. This means that the stopover orbits for jumping electrons are not situated at random, but are found at fixed, specific distances from the nucleus of the atom.

Bohr’s model of the atom raised many unsettling questions. What causes an electron to jump orbit? When does the jump take place? In which direction does the emitted light take off, and why? As far as it could be discerned, these events were unpredictable. If so, then classical laws of physics cannot be applied to describe them. The implication here is that lawlessness and chaos reigns at the subatomic level. Yet at the macroscopic level, there is perfect physical law and order. Macroscopic matter is built up from aggregates of atoms which are in turn built up from subatomic matter and energy forces. How is it perfect law and order can arise out of lawlessness and chaos? This is another weird aspect of physical reality that seemed to defy rational explanation.
 

QUANTUM WEIRDNESS

When the electron was first discovered, it seemed obvious that it was a particle. After all, it gave a registration on a Geiger Counter, and left a visible track in a Wilson Cloud Chamber. However, when classical physics was employed to determine the position and momentum of the electron in space, queer things happened: Each time a reading of its position was taken, its momentum could not be ascertained, and each time a reading of its momentum was taken, its position could not be ascertained. It was not possible to know accurately the position and momentum of the electron at any one particular moment. Only approximate values for position and momentum could be ascertained simultaneously, but the moment one value was known precisely, nothing could be known about the other value. It seemed as if the electron was only willing to turn one face at a time towards the examining apparatus.

As we go beyond the microscope, we discover a realm far removed from the reality of the macroscopic world... regions where the concepts of space and time, energy and matter, are nothing like what the lay mind perceives. We discover that light behaves like waves as well as particles; electrons jump orbits in unpredictable ways; subatomic particles refuse to reveal their position and momentum simultaneously. These were some of the weird findings that challenged the laws of classical physics during the early period of the 20th century. It soon became evident that classical laws of physics were not applicable within the subatomic world, but it was felt that, somewhere within the chaos of the subatomic realm, there might be hidden laws that could describe the weird events that took place there. For the first three decades of the 20th century, scientists struggled to uncover these laws. Their efforts culminated with the formulation of Quantum Theory, a landmark in scientific achievement that was to influence greatly the subsequent course and destiny of Mankind.
 

QUANTUM THEORY AND UNIVERSAL REALITY

Quantum Theory replaced classical laws of physics in describing events that take place within the subatomic realm. The strong influence of Quantum Physics is abundantly evident in today’s world. In chemistry, the rationale for the periodical table of elements and molecular bondage became understood in the light of Quantum Theory. The phase transitions of matter have also been explained by Quantum Theory. Transistors, computer technology, lasers are some of the advances that have emerged as a legacy of Quantum Theory. Molecular biology, a new offshoot of science, culminating with the discovery of the DNA and RNA owes its existence to Quantum Theory; so do the newer applications in physics... Quantum Theory of Solids, electrical conductivity, superconductivity and superfluidity. Quantum Theory also led to the birth of nuclear physics, the invention of the nuclear bomb and the harnessing of nuclear energy for industrial use.

Quantum Theory has been formulated from new theoretical concepts in physics and mathematics introduced during the first three decades of the last century. Quantum Matrix Mechanics, Wave Mechanics, Transformation Theory, Probability Waves, Heisenberg Uncertainty Relationship, Bohr’s Complementarity Principle - these are the principal areas in theoretical physics that together constitute Quantum Theory. The student of the new physics, stepping into these areas for the first time, will feel like Alice in Wonderland... cast into a weird realm at the fundamental levels of physical reality. Weird though it may be, nobody can deny that Quantum Theory does work, although nobody knows exactly why it does. Quantum Matrix Mechanics incorporate physical laws that subatomic events obey. It is the mechanics of statistical behaviour of subatomic entities, i.e., the mathematical matrices are statistical representations of real values. Roughly, this means that, even though individual subatomic events appear to occur at random, for some unknown reason, when the average of many such random events is taken, an orderly pattern is seen. Matrix mathematics reveals these orderly patterns. Quantum Theory does not tell us how individual particles within the atom behave. It cannot give us a true picture of reality within the atom. Quantum Theory does not tell us what a wave-particle look like or enable us to ascertain its exact position and momentum from matrix representations. Nobody can describe the physical appearance of a probability wave. (No wonder Einstein refused to accept the claim by its proponents that Quantum Theory is a complete theory.)
 

PARTICLE PHYSICS 

Despite the surrealistic description of the atomic structure as depicted by Quantum and Relativity Theories, the tendency towards viewing the atom along the lines of a 3-dimensional planetary model continued to prevail. Also persistent was the notion that all matter could ultimately be reduced to fundamental particles. Researchers, using high-energy particle accelerators, bombarded subatomic particles against one another with the intention of breaking these up into smaller particles among which they hoped to find fundamental particles. Collision experiments did produce many new particles... in fact so many that doubts soon arose regarding the ‘elementary’ status of these numerous particles. Furthermore, it was observed that when subatomic particles disintegrated under bombardment by other particles, the new particles that emerged were not necessarily smaller fragments of the original ones. On the contrary, it was not uncommon to find duplicate copies of the originals among the newly formed particles. Clearly, duplicate copies of an original cannot possibly be elementary particles derived from the original.

The problem with the use of collision experiments in producing elementary particles lies with Einstein’s Relativistic Equation E=MC². Rather than to achieve the desired objective of breaking up the particle under study into smaller parts, the energy from the bombarding particles would itself contribute to the energy pool from which the masses of new particles are derived.
 

WHAT IS REALITY?

The fact that confronts us here is, it is physically impossible to probe into the atom without changing its original structural status. Much of our present-day knowledge relating to the internal structure of the atom has been derived from collision experiments involving high-energy subatomic particles. Such projectile probes are actually part of an observing system. As Bohr has pointed out in his Complementarity Principle, when we get down to subatomic levels, the very act of observing alters the observed system. In probing the atom, the information relayed back to the human observer includes data that has been corrupted by the probe, and hence does not reflect the true picture of reality within the atom.

What then is the appearance of reality within the atom? Do subatomic particles exist as particles or as waves?... or do they exist as ill-defined semi-particles? Does a subatomic particle actually spin around its axis before its spin is measured? Do electrons really zip around the atom at 600 m.p.s. or protons and neutrons at 40,000 m.p.s. around one another, or do they commence to do so only after they make contact with the observing system set up to measure their movements? Do electrons or any other subatomic particles exist at all before we set up experiments to detect their presence, or do they only make their physical appearance when contacted by the energy probes dispatched to examine them? These are questions that are actually being asked today. But since the only way we can ‘see’ the interior of an atom is by using high-energy probes, which invariably alter the observed system, it appears unlikely then that the naked truth of subatomic quantum reality will ever be known to us. This leaves us with only our imagination and speculative conjecture to conjure up a mental picture of subatomic reality based on present-day scientific knowledge.
 

THE ELECTRON WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY: A CLUE TO SUBATOMIC REALITY?

A clue to subatomic reality might be obtained through a study and analysis of the wave-particle duality of subatomic entities. When light of a fixed wavelength is projected through two narrow adjacent slits in an opaque sheet, the phenomenon of interference is observed. A screen behind the slits captures the characteristic image of dark bands alternating with lighter bands, not just two separate bands of light. This is attributed to diffracted light waves from the two slits interfering with each other’s wave patterns. When one of the slits is closed, light passing through the remaining open slit is not subjected to interference and projects a single-banded image on the screen.

When this same experiment is performed with electrons as the projectile source, similar results are obtained. This is not surprising since it has been shown that electrons also possess wave-particle duality just as light does.

However, a strange thing happens when electrons are fired one at a time towards the two open slits. If it can be assumed that each electron enters either one or the other of the two slits, and that no two electrons are admitted at the same time into either of the two slits, then there should be no interference pattern in the projected image on the screen behind the slits. Yet interference is still seen even in this situation! The implication is that each single electron fired passes through both slits at the same time, causing interference after passing through! Till this day, no one has been able to come forward with a foolproof explanation for this phenomenon, though it seems to me that the real answer is likely to be tied in somehow with the electron’s property of wave-particle duality.

Let us suppose that reality at subatomic levels is not what our observations tell us; that a subatomic ‘particle’ during isolated propagation through space is not carried in the form of a point particle but is in fact spread out over an ill-defined area as an energy field (waveform). This is a legitimate proposition, for after all, the methods we normally use in identifying a subatomic ‘particle’, e.g. from its trail left behind in a bubble chamber and captured on a photographic plate, could be misleading. This trail might not represent the path of the particle in its actual physical form, but rather its energy field artificially brought to numerous focal points by the observing apparatus (bubble chamber and photographic plate). Upon this premise, I can visualise how a single electron might pass through two adjacent slits on a screen, viz. as an electron wave that splits into two parts, each part going through one slit, then rejoining after passing through; and since waves are subject to interference, I would expect the two electron wave portions from each slit to ‘interfere’ with each other as they re-merge after passing through. (I might have missed out on other possible intervening factors such as interaction between the bisected electron waves and the high concentration of energy forces located around the edges of the two slits.)
 

QUANTUM-RELATIVISTIC EFFECTS IN SUBATOMIC REALITY

The picture of reality within the atom is further complicated by the fact that there are interacting energy forces (electromagnetic forces, nuclear forces) inside the atom that move around at or near the speed of light. At such speeds, Relativity Theory should come into play. Nobody knows how energy forces and quantum particles might interact under such conditions. For all we know, energy and matter inside the atom might in reality exist as inseparable entities, subjected to changing dynamic patterns or intermediate forms that defy description. As such, Quantum Theory by itself cannot be expected to describe accurately the events that occur within the atom. A complete description of such events will require a combination of Quantum Theory and Relativity Theory. Up to date, such a complete Quantum-Relativistic theory has not been successfully formulated yet. Without this Relativistic link, any attempt to depict physical reality through Quantum Theory alone would be meaningless.
 

ANTI-MATTER 

In the preceding section, it was stated that Physics has as yet been unable to come up with a complete Quantum-Relativistic Theory. However, a start has already been made in this direction. This is seen in Dirac’s Quantum-Relativistic Theory describing electrons and photons within a field-concept.  Dirac’s equations treated the electron as part of an electron field, obeying the laws of both Relativity Theory and Quantum Theory.

Dirac’s Quantum-Relativistic Field Theory revealed a fundamental symmetry of nature at the subatomic level. It predicted the existence of the anti-electron.  (Dirac’s Field Theory equations show that every electron particle in existence must have a corresponding twin... an anti-particle similar in every respect to the particle in question, except that it has the opposite electric charge and spin). Two years after Dirac’s Theory was published, the positron was discovered. A positron is the mirror image of an electron, and has a positive instead of a negative electric charge. Since then, anti-matter particles have been identified for nearly all other existing particles, e.g. anti-proton with a negative charge, anti-neutron with a neutral charge. (An exception is the photon whose anti-particle is also a photon.)

When matter and anti-matter are brought into contact, mutual annihilation occurs with the total conversion of matter and anti-matter into energy, released as gamma radiation. The reverse process also occurs, viz. the creation of pairs of particles and their corresponding anti-particles from gamma rays. Such events have been repeatedly produced and observed in high-energy research laboratories, vindicating Einstein’s famous equation on the equivalence of energy and mass, E=MC².
 

THE BOOTSTRAP THEORY OF HADRONS

In the 1950’s and 1960’s when hadrons were first created in the research laboratories, these were thought to be new fundamental particles that exist within the nuclei of atoms, but as more and more of these turned up in collision experiments, researchers began to have doubts. An alternative explanation was sought for the seemingly never-ending appearances of new hadrons. A plausible answer came in the form of the Hadron Bootstrap Theory proposed by Geoffery Chew, an American-Chinese physicist. In the Bootstrap Theory, all hadrons are composites of other hadrons. When they are broken up, they can join up with parts of other hadrons to form new hadrons. In this way, it becomes possible to have an infinite number of different combinations resulting in an infinite number of different hadrons.
 

QUARK THEORY OF HADRONS

The Bootstrap Theory gained wide support until 1961, when two physicists, Gell-Mann and Neeman, recognised an orderly pattern in the jungle of hadrons that emerged from the laboratories. They noticed that certain hadrons could be grouped into ‘families’ and presented as symmetrical patterns on a chart, and these symmetrical patterns could be explained in theory if it could be assumed that all hadrons are built up from combinations of just 3 distinct elementary particles called Quarks and their corresponding anti-particles called Anti-Quarks. Hadrons can be looked upon as ‘quark molecules’. The large variety of hadrons that can be assembled from a few types of quarks is analogous to the large variety of molecules that can be assembled from a few types of atoms.  (Today the Quark Theory has been expanded to include new types of quarks possessing different ‘flavours’ and ‘colours’... a total of 18 different types of quarks altogether.)

The success of the quark model in explaining hadron structures revived interest in the concept of fundamental particles. If the Quark Theory holds, then the proton (a hadron), previously regarded as an elementary particle with a fundamental status, can no longer be looked upon as such. Since the Quark Theory was proposed in the 1960’s, there has been an on-going search for these theoretical fundamental particles. So far none have been found. Each time a hadron was split up, no quarks emerged. Instead, more hadrons were formed. On paper, there is no question that hadrons behave as if they are built out of quarks, but do hadrons actually contain quarks in a true physical sense? Are these quarks bonded together so strongly that no known forces are able to rend them apart?

However, such questions are purely academic. In theory, it is not necessary that quarks should physically exist in order that the quark model of the hadron may work. All that is required is the presence of undefined quark-precursor forms within the atomic nucleus that have a tendency to materialise as quarks. This is a reasonable assumption considering the fact that subatomic particles and energy forces moving at very high speeds within the atomic nucleus must be subjected to quantum-relativistic effects. Here, it would not be surprising to see matter and energy forces existing as one in a dynamic state... perhaps alternating freely between discrete particles and ‘amorphous’ energy forces as they shuttle between the theoretical dimensions of space-time. (See Dimensional Existences: Chapter 13.) If the physical state within the atomic nucleus is as visualised above, then we need not insist that quarks must pre-exist before they may interact with one another to form hadrons. Dynamic interactions between presumptive precursors of quark particles should be able to take place while they still exist in the vague amorphous state... as packages of energy with the tendency to form quarks. This tendency only becomes physical reality when quarks materialise within hadrons, whereupon quarks will no longer exist as quarks, but as integral components of the hadron composites they form.

So we are back, none the wiser, to our earlier question. If matter is not made of fundamental particles, what then is the true nature of physical reality?
 

ENERGY FIELDS: FIELD THEORY

During the first few decades of the last century, a credible concept of physical reality was hampered by two conflicting dualisms: one was the dualism of matter and energy, and the other was the dualism of particles and fields (represented by waves). Since then, both these dualisms seem to have been resolved - the first by Relativity Theory and the second by Quantum Theory. Since particles are regarded as synonymous with matter, the way then seemed clear for the merger of concepts involving matter/energy (Relativity Theory) on one hand, and particle/fields (Quantum Theory) on the other hand, with the aim of achieving a consistent overview of physical reality. Such a unified theory upon which all physics can be explained has long been the elusive dream of physicists. (TOE - Theory of Everything).

The first step towards this merger came in Dirac’s Quantum-Relativistic Theory (mentioned earlier) describing the interaction between electrons and photons within a field-concept. Dirac’s equations treated the electron as part of an electron field, obeying the laws of both Relativity Theory and Quantum Theory, opening up a new perspective of particles and energy fields that has, over the years, developed into the modern concept of physical reality.

Under Field Theory, physical reality is seen as consisting of nothing else but energy fields of various strengths. Each field has its associated quanta. The areas where the field-intensities are very strong are the areas within the field where the associated quanta are likely to be found. The different fields interact with one another through the exchange of quanta. The quanta involved in the exchange act like glue. They bind particles in the interacting fields together. These quanta have been appropriately named ‘gluons’.

Under this concept, the picture of physical reality is greatly simplified. The universe is presented as one huge arena of inter-linking energy fields. All that needs to be resolved are the details on how the quanta of the various fields interact with one another to present the universe as we see it.

With so many different types of subatomic particles identified, one would have expected to find an equally large number of associated fields, with a correspondingly large number of complex interactions between these fields. But for some unknown reason, all field interactions can be resolved into four types, identified by the different energy levels at which each of these operate. They are, in ascending order of strengths:

1.   The Gravitational Interaction.
2.   The Weak Interaction.
3.   The Electromagnetic Interaction.
4.   The Strong Interaction.

The gravitational interaction is the weakest of the four interactions. It also has the longest range of action. Gravity interacts between large astronomical bodies through the exchange of theoretical gravity gluons.

The weak interaction is the interaction that takes place between hadrons within the atomic nucleus. It is mediated through the exchange of weak gluons between hadrons. The weak interaction is responsible for radioactive decay in certain unstable atomic nuclei.

The electromagnetic interaction takes place between charged particles, viz., between positively charged protons of the atomic nucleus and the negatively charged electrons orbiting around it. The gluon involved in this interaction is the photon. The electromagnetic interaction is also responsible for molecular bondage between atoms and molecules.

The strong interaction is the force that binds quarks together within hadrons. It is mediated through the exchange of theoretical ‘coloured’ gluons between theoretical quarks. The strong interaction is the strongest known force in the universe.
 

SYMMETRY AND BROKEN SYMMETRIES: UNIFIED FIELD THEORY

The picture of physical reality, as it now stands, depicts a universe made up of four distinct types of energy fields: the Gravitational, Weak, Electromagnetic and Strong Fields. These energy fields interact with one another through gluons. Having simplified physics this far, physicists at the drawing board are now asking themselves: Can it be that the four different energy fields described by these interactions are in fact broken ‘fragments’ that had originated from one basic universal energy field? And so, today, a search is going on for a Unified Theory of Physics that will merge all the four separate interacting energy fields into one single field -- a Theory of Everything (TOE) that can explain all physics in a nutshell.

In 1967, Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam published their theory on the unification of the electromagnetic and weak forces. Briefly, the theory goes like this: The four interactions in the universe exist today only because, following the Big Bang, the expanding universe cooled down to energy levels that permitted a separation of the interactions. At higher energy levels of the early universe, the electromagnetic and weak forces were unified as one single, symmetrical force sharing similar gluons. As cooling took place, the symmetry of these gluons was broken. Out of every 4 symmetrical gluons, 3 acquired huge masses to become the W+, W-, and Z particles, which are the gluons of the Weak Interaction. The 4th lost all its mass to become the photon, which is the quantum as well as the gluon of the Electromagnetic Interaction. Under this theory, at high energy levels, the Electromagnetic and Weak Interactions are of the same strength and are linked together as one common Electro-Weak Interaction.

The Weinberg-Salam Theory successfully exploited the concept of broken symmetries to explain the separation of the electro-weak interaction into its two present-day components. By borrowing ideas from this theory and applying these to the strong interaction, scientists built up the quark-binding theory called Chromodynamics. This theory requires that all quarks should possess a new kind of charge, arbitrarily designated as one of the three primary colours red, blue and yellow. (These three ‘coloured’ charges represent a broken symmetry arising from an original symmetrical ‘white’ charge.) From these three coloured charges, it was deduced that 8 ‘coloured’ gluons are required to explain the quark-binding properties in hadrons.

The next step in simplifying physics was the formulation of a theory unifying the Electro-Weak with the Strong Interaction. This was achieved by using the same concept of broken symmetries, and is known as the Grand Unification Theory (GUT). This theory stipulates that, at the very high energy levels that prevailed a fraction of a second after our universe came into existence, all four interactions were of the same strength. Also, quarks and leptons (e.g. electrons, positrons) were unified as one in an unbroken symmetry. The quark-lepton complex interacted through 24 symmetrical gluons. As the universe cooled, the symmetry of these gluons was broken. 12 of these acquired very huge masses to become ‘superheavy’ gluons. Of the remaining 12, eight became the ‘coloured’ gluons of the Strong Interaction, and 4 the gluons of the Electro-Weak Interaction. The latter 4 were further broken up into W+, W-, and Z particles of the Weak Interaction, and the photon of the Electromagnetic Interaction. By linking quarks and leptons to a common origin, we are one step closer to a unification of matter and energy forces into a single fundamental entity.

The Grand Unification Theory (GUT) links together 3 field-interactions, viz., Electromagnetic, Weak and Strong Interactions. There remains only one loose end to be tied in with the GUT to complete the formulation of the long sought-after Unified Theory of Physics (TOE - Theory of Everything). This loose end is the Gravitational Field-Interaction. New scientific theories are being considered today (Superstring Theories) that hold promise of supplying the important missing link to this loose end. If science achieves success in this direction, then perhaps we will be able to claim with greater conviction that, sometime around 15 billion years ago, our universe existed as a single, symmetrical, unified energy force... a Primordial Force that gave up Its perfect symmetry in the Big Bang to form the universe as we see it today.